Natural disasters have
had a disproportionately large impact on the developing world and
on poor people within those countries, for a variety of reasons.
This website makes this argument clear using, primarily, the case-study
of the Indian Ocean tsunami of 2004. Rural-urban migration in Less
Developed Countries (LDCs) is driven by push-factors, such as rural
unemployment, famine, population growth, and civil wars. Economic
crises can be exacerbated by governmental compliance with International
Monetary Fund (IMF) Structural Adjustment Programs (SAPs) or World
Bank programs resulting in unplanned urban sprawl into dangerous
areas such as hillsides and flood plains.
The World Bank estimates
that “"[m]ore than 90 percent of the populations of Bangladesh,
Nepal, the Dominican Republic, Burundi, Haiti, Taiwan, Malawi, El
Salvador, and Honduras live in areas at high relative risk of death
from two or more hazards".” Poor governance, external
sanctions, poverty, and foreign debt force peasants to burn wood
and charcoal for fuel and to engage in unsustainable farming techniques
which drive deforestation, the consequences of which are discussed
below.
Foreign debt also limits
the amount of revenue available for public services such as disaster
warning systems or response plans. Low-intensity conflicts in LDCs
also augments the devastation (see Civil
wars), as relief and information-gathering efforts are hindered,
and unexploded munitions and mines can be scattered across the land
from minefields during floods. In addition, according to Nobel Laureate
Amartya Sen "Democratic governments, in contrast [to
authoritarian ones], have to win elections and face public criticism,
and have strong incentives to undertake measures to avert famines
and other such catastrophes."
While natural disasters
per se cannot be averted, many of their consequences—"such
as famine, disease outbreaks, etc."can be mitigated by democratic
governance, which is less prevalent in LDCs. The most vulnerable
populations tend to be the most marginalized (due to a lack of access
to information, to pre- and post-disaster protection, and to sustainable
agricultural options) which, in LDCs, tend to be women and children.
This deepens the impact of natural disasters by disproportionately
harming the most vital population for long-term development: women,
and unfortunately, socio-economic development is itself a prerequisite
for escaping the disaster-recovery cycle pervasive in many LDCs.
Finally, natural disasters in tropical LDCs suffer from the added
menace of malaria infestation in the aftermath; indeed, according
to the World Health Organization (WHO), over one-third of Africa's
malaria deaths are due to natural disasters and conflicts.
Sources: Natural
disaster hotspots: A global risk analysis / Amartya Sen, Development
as Freedom (New York: First Anchor Books, 1999), 16 / Third
of African Malaria Deaths Due to Conflict or Natural Disaster
/ Natural
Disasters: A Challenge for Development of Latin America
In 1998, 90% of the
victims of natural disasters lived in LDCs; over half of Inter-American
Development Bank (IDB) borrowers are exposed to natural disasters
on a recurring basis, and there is a high statistical correlation
between Gross Domestic Product (GDP) growth and the annual
number of so-called "natural" disasters. Therefore, Earth
Institute scientist Dr. Maxx Dilley notes: “ "With natural
hazard cycles repeating themselves every few years, developing countries
find themselves in a vicious cycle of loss and recovery without
the ability to move forward and achieve sustainable development.”
Ricardo Zapata Martí of the Economic Commission for Latin
America and the Caribbean notes that natural disasters are a development
problem: "First, because certain natural phenomena, tend to
have greater effects on developing countries than on developed countries.
Second, because several structural factors associated with a low
level of development exacerbate such effects. Third, because the
negative impact of natural phenomena on the prospects for long-term
development is considerably greater in less developed countries."
Sources:Natural
Disasters: A Challenge for Development of Latin America / World
Bank(Zapata) / Natural
Disaster hotspots: A global risk analysis
This page reviews several
case studies of natural disasters occurring in the Periphery (i.e.,
LDCs), including Hurricane Mitch and Hurricane Jeanne, and the developmental
problems they pose. Through these case studies, the above intersections
between economic and human development, environmental justice, and
natural disasters will be explored.
Hurricane Mitch
Hurricane Mitch devastated
Central America and the Caribbean in October 1998. Although Hurricane
Mitch was a mere tropical storm as it passed through most of Central
America and the Caribbean, it turned out to be the deadliest Atlantic
storm in two-hundred years. Honduran president Carlos Flores claimed
that it set his country's development back a half-decade. As will
be shown, this is directly related to the issue of international
environmental and developmental justice.
Sources: BBC
News Hurricane Mitch Special Report: Hurricane Mitch
In order of severity,
Hurricane Mitch affected Nicaragua, Honduras, Guatemala, El Salvador,
Belize, Mexico, Panama, Costa Rica, Jamaica, and Florida. In Nicaragua,
870,000 were affected (15% of the population) with damages reaching
$1 billion, and in Honduras, 75% of the population was affected
with a cost of $4 billion. Overall, “"10,000 people were
killed, 3 million displaced, and $8.5 billion in damages incurred;”
almost 90% of the human casualties were in Nicaragua and Honduras.
In Nicaragua, 750,000 homes were destroyed and in El Salvador, 50,000
people were left homeless and 500,000 were forced to flee their
homes. Infrastructure was destroyed throughout Central America with
Honduras, Nicaragua, and Guatemala being the hardest hit; 28 bridges
and 31 highways were razed in the latter state and 90% of Honduras'
roads suffered to some degree. Agriculture, the primary source of
foreign exchange for these “'banana republics,'” was
also extirpated by floods, heavy rain, wind, and standing water.
In Honduras, 90% of the banana crops were destroyed; Nicaragua and
Guatemala each lost 25-30% of their coffee production; and overall,
40,000 banana workers were left unemployed and 70% of Dole's land
was spoiled. Recovery in these vital sectors is dependant on the
pace of infrastructure recovery which, in turn, is dependent on
foreign aid.
Sources: BBC
News Hurricane Mitch Special Report: Hurricane Mitch / Global
Issues That Affect Everyone/ After
Hurricane Mitch / Hurricane
Mitch, damage and destruction report
President Clinton committed
$263 million in disaster assistance, including $17 million in loans
to help local businesses reopen; $621 in grant funding to create
the Central America and Caribbean Emergency Disaster Recovery Fund,
and 5,600 U.S. troops to help reconstruct infrastructure and provide
clean food and water. While this was generally considered adequate,
it was slow to be approved by the U.S. Congress and had a two year
program deadline, which severely limited its effectiveness given
that most Central American states have still not fully recovered
six years later.
Sources: BBC
News Americas More US Aid for Mitch victims/ BBC
News Hurricane Mitch Special Report: Hurricane Mitch
The outpouring of foreign
assistance was widely considered a success in the aftermath of the
2004 Indian Ocean tsunami (see Relief/aid),
but, as in that crisis, aid to Central America did not address the
root causes of that tragedy. Overall, international aid totaled
$17 billion, but affected nations were paying over $4 million per
day to international lenders.
The Iberian colonization
of Latin America created to a system of latifundios—"large
divisions of land granted by royal decree to a small number of peninsulares,
or colonial officials. Independence increased the power of the latifundios,
as they took control of governing institutions and prevented landless
mobilization. Land not yet controlled by the oligarchy were expropriated
using state instruments of power; “"The process of reorganizing
[a] nation's resources fell most heavily on [indigenous] communal
properties, which were declared ‘'private property' and then
offered for acquisition by entrepreneurs.” By the 1940-60s,
in Guatemala, Honduras, and Nicaragua, 80% of the land was in the
hands of 2% of the population although the majority the populations
were rural peasants living on subsistence agriculture. In Bolivia
in 1952, for example, 82% of the people farmed 1% of the land!
Pressure for agrarian
reform was repressed, however, due to pressure from transnational
corporations (TNCs) based in the North (like United Fruit Company
[UFC]) that had, between 1890 and 1920, purchased large tracts of
land from corrupt and brutal dictators such as Manuel Estrada Cabrera
in Guatemala and Tiburcio Carías in Honduras. When reformists
or nationalists such as Jacobo Arbenz of Guatemala or Agusto César
Sandino happened to gain power they were branded communists by their
opponents and by the United States in order to justify intervention
to protect UFC and other companies' holdings. In Guatemala, Arbenz
was ousted Colonel Carlos Castillo Armas in 1954 with UFC and CIA
aid after he approved the Agricultural Reform Bill; in Nicaragua,
Sandino was assassinated in 1933 and replaced by the infamous Somoza
dynasty.
Sources: Howard
J. Wiarda and Harvey F. Kline, Latin American Politics and Development,
Fifth Edition (Boulder: Westview Press, 2000), 497/ Patrice Franco,
The Puzzle of Latin American Economic Development (New
York: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc., 1999), 283-308/
Eugenio Chang-Rodríguez, Latinoamérica: su civilización
y su cultura (New York: Heinle & Heinle Publishing, 2000),
229-48.
The legacy of this dualistic
production system (the pattern of small and large landholdings)
as it relates to Hurricane Mitch is threefold. First, these Central
American “"banana republics"” remain dependent
on Core-based TNCs such as Dole and Chiquita which engage in industrial
monoculture production for export. We have already seen the consequences
of this, as entire years' harvests were wiped out and Honduran coffee
and banana exports accounted for only 15% of exports in September
2004—"well below their pre-1998 levels. In Nicaragua,
agricultural exports—which came to a near standstill in 1999—"
made up nearly 50% of its GDP; they are currently 36% of exports.
Second, it has perpetuated the bifurcated society, a legacy of post-reconquista
Iberia, whereby the peasant underclass has access to neither jobs
nor land. Finally, it has precipitated an unfair International Division
of Labor, whereby the structure of the Core-Periphery trade relationship
generates unbalanced terms of trade and thus foreign debt.
Sources: Nicaragua
(02/05) / Honduras
(09/04) / CIA
- The World Factbook -- Nicaragua / CIA
- The World Factbook -- Honduras
Regarding the second
legacy, Hurricane Mitch brought to light the environmental impacts
of a bifurcated society. First, access to employment and education
are limited for everyone (unemployment in Honduras is 27% and in
Nicaragua 22% are unemployed and 36% underemployed; Nicaragua's
literacy rate is 67% and Honduras' is 76%), but especially for women.
While female and male literacy and primary education are roughly
equal, the indexes for female empowerment and economic activity
relegate women to second class status. For example, they are half
as likely as men to be gainfully” employed which disempowers
them in decision-making procedures; as a result, fertility rates
throughout Central America hover at four births per woman. Second,
“extensive ranches constituted 10 per cent of the total number
of farms in the early 1990s, but covered 46% of the agricultural
land. Conversely, small holder farmers represented 44 per cent of
the total number of farms covering only 6 per cent of total farm
land.”
The Central American
civil wars and genocides of the 1970s-80s in addition to the historically-driven
concentration of good agricultural land in the hands of the elite
pushed many of these minifundios (small holdings) into
the fragile mountain ecosystems, causing deforestation. Therefore,
“"Flash floods were the leading cause of death and destruction
during Hurricane Mitch,” as there were no roots to absorb
the water or trees to slow it. Indeed, Argelia, Nicaragua was completely
buried beneath a landslide from an adjacent volcano. Rain and deforestation
also caused topsoil erosion which still hinders peasant farmers'
efforts to recover their way of life. Finally, urban sprawl—"due
to demographic increases, denigrated land, mechanized agriculture,
and the pull-factor of the maquila industry—"
caused many deaths as well. (It is notable from an environmental
justice perspective that each of these factors can be tied to problems
of “"globalization from above."”)
More than half of Central
Americans, 16 million, live in cities, and that number is expected
to be 22 million in 2007, and 35 million in 2025. This, in conjunction
with [a]lready limited public expenditures on social programs [which]
were further curtailed to satisfy the conditions and mandates of
international lending institutions” has resulted in “high
levels of ill health, exclusion and indigence among both the rural
and urban poor [which has] compounded levels of vulnerability. Uncontrolled
urban sprawl and speculative land markets have pushed many marginal
settlements into high-risk areas, such as river canyons and flood-prone
coastal areas.” This is one reason that the poor were
disproportionately affected by Hurricane Mitch.
Sources: Nicaragua
(02/05) / Honduras
(09/04) / CIA
- The World Factbook -- Nicaragua / CIA
- The World Factbook -- Honduras / Human
Development Reports /Environmental
Degradation / BBC
News Hurricane Mitch Special Report: Hurricane Mitch
Urban
Sprawl in Honduras
Natural disasters have
similarly affected the poor in other periods of Central American
history. After a 1972 Nicaragua earthquake, official corruption
prevented aid from reaching the urban poor, fueling resentment that
led, ultimately, to the 1979 Sandinista revolution. A 1992 earthquake
in El Salvador helped bring its civil war to a negotiated end.
Although each of the
colonial legacies are interconnected, the final legacy—"an
unjust ditsribution of labor —"may be the key macro-variable
related to external debt, SAPs, World Bank programs, poverty, atrocious
human development indicators, environmental degradation, etc. As
we have seen, the Central American economy has long been and remains
based on export-oriented agriculture; it currently accounts for
between 20-35% of most Central American states' GDPs. (While this
percentage is lower than past decades, it is being replaced by the
assembly industry, which does not help Central American economies
because the majority are located in Free Trade Zones [FTZs]. In
FTZs, TNCs pay limited taxes, can pay lower wages, have lower environmental
and labor standards, can repatriate often 90-100% of their profits,
and are often subsidized in other ways.)
According to Raul Prebish
and the United Nations Economic Commission for Latin America, however,
export agriculture is not a sustainable path to development because
“"Latin America's export-oriented enclaves would continue
to demand modern, mostly imported goods” while Northern demand
for primary goods would decline relatively and absolutely due to
the development of technological substitutes.” The resulting
relationship creates declining terms of trade for the Periphery,
international debt peonage, and dependent development". Core
countries can expand through self-impulsion while others, being
in a dependent position, can only expand as a reflection of the
expansion of the dominant countries.” In addition, Latin American
countries borrowed during the 1970s to finance infrastructure and
commodity purchases, taking advantage of low interest rates due
to the influx of petrodollars. During the 1980s, however, interest
rates rose and commodity prices plummeted. As a result of these
factors, Nicaragua owes $4.6 billion in foreign debt which makes
up 70% of its GDP, and, in 2001, foreign assistance made up 25%
of its GDP; Honduras' public debt is $5.5 billion, or 75% of its
GDP.
Sources: Nicaragua
(02/05) / Honduras
(09/04) / CIA
- The World Factbook -- Nicaragua / CIA
- The World Factbook -- Honduras / Human
Development Reports / Patrice Franco, The Puzzle of Latin
American Economic Development (New York: Rowman & Littlefield,
1999), ch 3/ Richard
S. Hillman , ed. Understanding Contemporary Latin America, Second
Edition. (Boulder: Lynne Rienner, 2001), 149-50
This debt is important
regarding Central America's capacity to prepare for, deal with,
and recover from natural disasters, for several reasons. First,
during the 1980s, the IMF conditioned further loans on governmental
commitments to decrease public spending, increase taxes, devalue
their currencies (increasing the price of necessities), eliminate
commercial barriers and subsidies, and privatize public industries,
including schools, hospitals, and utilities. As a result, when Hurricane
Mitch hit, there was no public warning system, no urban planning
to thwart the dangers of urban sprawl, no hospitals to receive a
massive influx of patients, no medication or plan to address the
aftermath including disease prevention, etc. (In the 1990s, these
programs were being implemented under the auspices of World Bank
programs, with the promise that a portion of their debt would be
relieved after two sets of three-year SAP programs. After Hurricane
Mitch, Nicaragua failed to meet HIPC standards and was removed;
Honduras is still working with the IMF.) Debt is also a contributing
factor in bringing a majority of people below the poverty line and
causing 80% of Nicaraguans to lack access to suitable food or shelter;
it is often the poor who engage in unsustainable and environmentally
degrading agricultural practices that worsen the effects of floods.
Second, “A major
source of servicing hard currency debt is agricultural exports,”
the likes of which were destroyed. Despite calls from Jubilee and
other non-governmental organizations upon the North to cancel debts,
the World Bank responded that “'although there is a great
deal of sympathy for the devastated countries, it would be unfair,
impossible and ultimately irresponsible to end the debt burden and
walk away. […] Many countries have something bad that happens
to them and many have had to withstand the shocks of such events
without what would effectively amount to insurance cover by their
creditors.”
Sources:
Joseph E. Stiglitz,
Globalization and its Discontents (New York: W. W. Norton
& Company, 2002), 9/ Patrice Franco, The Puzzle of Latin
American Economic Development (New York: Rowman & Littlefield
Publishers, Inc., 1999), ch 3/ Nicaragua
(02/05) / Honduras
(09/04) / BBC
News Debt Case study: Central America / BBC
News Hurricane Mitch Special Report: Hurricane Mitch
The case study of Hurricane
Mitch, therefore, clearly illustrates the link between the concepts
of international economic and environmental justice. Macroeconomic
injustice, historical trends, and a geographic predisposition to
natural disasters converged on Central America.
Hurricane
Jeanne
Also in Latin America,
Hurricane Jeanne more clearly elucidates the environmental
degradation that occurs when underdevelopment and natural disasters
converge.
Hurricane Jeanne passed
through Haiti in September 2004 leaving over 3,000 dead, 30,000
homeless, and hundreds-of-thousands without adequate care. The damage
should have been minimal at worst;—indeed, like “Hurricane”
Mitch, Jeanne was a mere tropical storm as it passed through Haiti,
and neither the Dominican Republic nor Cuba experienced losses of
life. But Haiti's inadequate warning system, poor governance, civil
conflict, rampant poverty, and deforestation left the island vulnerable.
Additional “ natural” disasters resulting from Jeanne
include massive soil erosion, the loss of biodiversity, habitat
destruction, and deforestation, all of which have devastating human
impacts and impede economic development.
Sources: LexisNexis(TM)
Academic - Document [NPR]
Upon
achieving independence in 1804 after a slave rebellion, Haiti was
isolated by other countries fearful of its example. Haiti's land
was subdivided haphazardly and overworked using primitive agricultural
methods. This reduced the fertility and yields of the land, driving
peasants to clear forested land to feed a rising population. Between
1957 and 1986, the environmental and political situation worsened,
as the U.S.-supported Duvalier kleptocracy augmented taxes and decreased
agricultural subsidies, thus intensifying the pressure on the land.
Then, between 1991 and 1994 the U.S. imposed a “leaky”
embargo (to allow assembled goods into the U.S. for American-based
companies) that priced fuel and cooking oil well beyond the reach
of Haitian poor, preventing them from transporting their surplus
to the capital of Port-au-Prince for cash. This deepened poverty
and forced peasants to hasten clear-cutting for charcoal. When Jean-Bertrand
Aristide was returned to his democratically elected post in a U.S.
intervention as president in 1994, he was unable to improve the
situation for Haiti's peasant farmers, as the U.S.-supported International
Monetary Fund (IMF) structural Adjustment Programs (SAPs) supported
the assembly industry over the job-creating agricultural sector.
Therefore, Haiti--dependent on foreign assistance--was prevented
from dedicating any funds to land reform; agricultural subsidies
for fertilizers, storage, or credit; reforestation campaigns, or
irrigation projects. Indeed, “In a leaked paper in 1996, the
World Bank warned that two-thirds of the country's workers based
on the land would be unlikely to survive the economic measures
demanded by the bank and the [IMF].”
Sources: LexisNexis(TM)
Academic - Document [Guardian Society]] / Paul Farmer, The
Uses of Haiti (Monroe, Maine: Common Courage Press, 2003),
12 and 156 / LexisNexis(TM)
Academic - Document [NPR]
As a result of this
tragic history, Haiti has gone from being 40% forested in 1920,
to 20% forested in 1950s, to 1-2% forested today, with no plausible
hope for a reversal of trends. Indeed, charcoal is now the primary
fuel source for 70% of Haitians, and due to acute poverty, four
out of five farmers cannot satisfy their basic food needs,”
according to Guardian Society,—many find
gainful employment selling the country's remaining trees. “A
ministry of the environment set up in early 1995 had plans to reduce
urban consumers' demand for charcoal by promoting the use of gas
stoves, [etc.],” however, “only .2% of the US$560 million
foreign assistance […] was assigned to the environment.”
Sources: LexisNexis(TM)
Academic - Document [Guardian Society]] / OneWorld.net
/ Latin America & Caribbean / Caribbean / Haiti
From a geographic perspective,
even its land is working against it, as 60% of Haitian terrain is
on a gradient of 20% or higher. Therefore, 36 million tons of Haiti’'s
topsoil erodes every year, resulting in losses of marine life; erosion
threatens 25% of Haiti’'s territory; the countryside experiences
desertification, deforestation, and biodiversity loss, and all of
this has devastating consequences for Haiti’'s capacity to
deal with natural disasters.
Sources: LexisNexis(TM)
Academic - Document [NPR]
Two final factors—--acute
poverty and civil unrest--—also play key social roles in deepening
the effects of natural disasters on Haiti. Seventy-six percent of
Haitians live on less than $2 per day, while 55% live on less than
$1 per day, and the food supply covers only 55% of the population
and 40% of Haitian families face food insecurity on a daily basis.
Besides leading to poor health, diminished productivity, lack of
education, and thus foreign debt due to lack of foreign investment,
it also—as mentioned—drives people to crime and unsustainable
agricultural techniques. In addition, Haiti has been experiencing
a virtual civil war since the rebel ouster of President Aristide
in 2004, this time with the support of the U.S. government. Aristide
supporters have been demonstrating for his return—often violently.
These factors combined worsen the effects of heavy rains (by causing
mudslides and flooding), as we have seen, but also contributed to
increased loss of life in other ways, as “crime rates are
so high across the country that” although everyone knew the
waters were going to rise “many refused to leave because they
were afraid their homes were going to be broken into and that their
things would be stolen.” Poverty and poor governance also
contributed to the total lack of urban planning which is why Gonaives,
a city of 300,000 and the hardest hit by Hurricane Jeanne, was allowed
to extend into a flood plain due to rural-urban migration.
Sources: OneWorld.net
/ Latin America & Caribbean / Caribbean / Haiti / LexisNexis(TM)
Academic - Document [NPR]
Three weeks after the
hurricane hit, however, 40,000 people in rural areas were still
unable to receive emergency aid, due to political violence by Aristide
supporters calling for his return to power (after a 2004 coup d'état)
and decrepit infrastructure. As a result, most of the deaths were
due to cholera and other diseases that arose due to standing water
and poor sanitation facilities.
Sources: LexisNexis(TM)
Academic - Document [NPR]
In fact, Cuba's response
to natural disasters provides a stark contrast that illustrates
the importance of good governance in mitigating the effects
of natural disasters. In Cuba, “Everyone has a task already
assigned and knows very well what to do,” “they wrap
up the banana trees [so as] not to lose the production entirely
with hurricanes,” all media outlets are dedicated to evacuation
and public information, police ensure that there are no stragglers,
and the state hauls all possessions to safe storage areas. After
the hurricane, engage a public health campaign and are “very
cognizant of the dangers that flooding and standing water presents.”
Sources: LexisNexis(TM)
Academic - Document [NPR]
Conclusion
Hurricane Jeanne, even
more so than Hurricane Mitch, clearly highlights the connections
between poverty, civil unrest, poor governance, environmental degradation,
and natural disasters. Both disasters, however, highlight the ever-present
link between environmental and economic justice and prove that human
and economic development are the best methods to prevent natural
disasters. This same link is found throughout this website in the
context of the Indian Ocean tsunami crisis. While each region in
the Periphery or Semi-Periphery--from Sri Lanka to India to Bolivia--may
experience unique environmental problems, poverty caused by an unjust
international politico-economic regime is a persistent factor that
aggravates prevention and recovery efforts. It also ensures that,
in each instance, the poor are the most deeply affected by the disaster.
Sources
For more information
on this topic:
Websites:
After Hurricane
Mitch: http://www.csusm.edu/pstricker/after_hurricane_mitch.pdf#search='hurricane
mitch US foreign aid'
BBC News Hurricane
Mitch Special Report: Hurricane Mitch: http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/210851.stm
BBC News Americas
More US Aid for Mitch Victims: http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/low/world/americas/215864.stm
CIA - The World
Factbook -- Honduras: http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ho.html
CIA - The World
Factbook -- Nicaragua: http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/nu.html
Environmental
Degradation: http://www.iisd.org/pdf/2002/envsec_conserving_6.pdf#search='urban
sprawl hurricane mitch'
Global Issues
That Affect Everyone: http://www.globalissues.org/
Honduras (09/04):
http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/1922.htm#econ
Human Development
Reports: http://hdr.undp.org/
Hurricane Mitch,
damage and destruction report: http://accuracyingenesis.com/mitch.html
LexisNexis(TM)
Academic - Document [Guardian Society]
LexisNexis(TM)
Academic - Document [NPR]
Natural disaster
hotsopts: A global risk analysis: http://www.eurekalert.org
/pub_releases/2005-03/teia-ndh033105.php
Natural Disasters:
A Challenge for Development of Latin America http://www.iadb.org/NEWS
/Display/PRView.cfm?PR_Num=50_00&Language=English
Nicaragua (02/05):
http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/1850.htm
OneWorld.net
/ Latin America & Caribbean / Caribbean / Haiti: http://www.oneworld.net/article/country/332
Third of African
Malaria Deaths Due to Conflict or Natural Disaster: http://www.who.int/inf-pr-2000/en/pr2000-46.html
World Bank
(Zapata): http://www.worldbank.org/abcde/eu_2000/pdffiles/zapata.pdf
Books
and Magazines:
Chang-Rodríguez,
Eugeíno. Latinoamérica: su civilización
y su cultura. New York: Heinle & Heinle Publishing, 2000.
Farmer, Paul.
The Uses of Haiti. Monroe, Maine: Common Courage Press,
2003.
Franco, Patrice.
The Puzzle of Latin American Economic Development. New York:
Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc., 1999.
Hillman, Richard
S., ed. Understanding Contemporary Latin America, Second Edition.
Boulder: Lynne Rienner, 2001.
Sen, Amartya.
Development as Freedom. New York: First Anchor Books, 1999.
Stiglitz, Joseph
E. Globalization and its Discontents. New York: W. W. Norton
& Company, 2002.
Wiarda, Howard
J. and Harvey F. Kline, eds. Latin American Politics and Development,
Fifth Edition. Boulder: Westview Press, 2000.